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Marlow Moss

Marlow Moss
Marlow Moss

Marlow Moss es una destacada pero olvidada artista que trabajó la abstracción geométrica, y su singular enfoque del espacio merece más atención. Este manuscrito toma como caso de estudio la obra de Marlow Moss Composición en rojo, negro y blanco (1953) de la colección del Stedelijk Museum de Ámsterdam y explora el concepto de líneas dobles y truncadas de Moss. Al activar una obra de arte abstracta de un artista ignorado producida en el periodo de posguerra, exploro el potencial de un concepto de espacio incorporado. El estudio reflexiona sobre la interrelación entre espacio, movimiento y cuerpo en la abstracción geométrica. ¿Cómo puede la abstracción geométrica revelar que el espacio y el género están relacionados? ¿Cómo pueden los conceptos feministas del espacio trastocar los sistemas espaciales patriarcales? ¿Qué relación existe entre el espacio y las identidades sociales? ¿Cómo puede el enfoque espacial de Moss revivificar un concepto feminista de la corporalidad?

En primer lugar, se ofrece una breve información biográfica sobre Moss a modo de antecedentes históricos. A continuación, discuto cómo el discurso masculino dominante de la historia del arte tiene una estructura excluyente. A continuación, examino el enfoque de Moss sobre el espacio y el cuerpo. Exploro cómo se interrelacionan la construcción del espacio y el género centrándome en el dinamismo y la fluidez de los lienzos de Moss. Propongo que Moss hizo una contribución crucial al vocabulario de la abstracción geométrica con su concepto de líneas dobles y truncadas, y argumento que sus líneas son la abstracción de un movimiento corpóreo. Por último, propongo que la forma en que Moss entiende el espacio a través del movimiento corporal puede interpretarse como una estrategia feminista y permite una reteorización del cuerpo fuera de los marcos patriarcales.

Marlow Moss (1889-1958), nacida en Londres, fue descrita en su día por Fernand Léger como una artista “que se resiste a la manía moderna de las clasificaciones”[1] Por mencionar algunos de sus atributos, fue alumna de Léger, discípula de Piet Mondrian, pintora, artista británica en París, emigrante en los Países Bajos, mujer, queer, drag king, de clase media alta, judía, atea y existencialista.

Al principio, Moss estudiaba arte en Slade, Londres, cuando cambió su nombre, Marjorie Jewel, por otro de género neutro, Marlow, y empezó a vestir ropa masculina. En 1927 se trasladó a París y estudió en la Académie Moderne, con Fernand Léger y Amédée Ozenfant, que ejercieron una gran influencia sobre Moss. En París conoció a su compañera de toda la vida, la escritora holandesa Antoinette Hendrika Nijhoff-Wind. Fue Nijhoff quien le presentó a Mondrian; Moss quedó fascinada por la estructura arquitectónica y los colores de Mondrian, y adoptó el lenguaje neoplástico de Mondrian para hacer realidad su ambición de “espacio, movimiento y luz”[2].

Moss fue un actor importante de la escena artística parisina de entreguerras, y fue buena amiga de Jean Gorin, Georges Vantongerloo y Max Bill. Fue una de las fundadoras de la Abstraction-Création (1931-1936), una asociación de artistas abstractos creada en París con el objetivo de promover el arte abstracto a través de exposiciones colectivas. A lo largo de la década de 1930, expuso regularmente con la Asociación 1940 en el Salon des Surindépendants, el Parc des Expositions, el Parc de Versailles y Le Salon des Réalités Nouvelles de París, así como en las exposiciones colectivas Konstruktivisten de la Kunsthalle (1937) de Basilea y Abstracte Kunst (1938) del Stedelijk Museum de Ámsterdam.

Al comienzo de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, abandonó Francia y se trasladó a los Países Bajos. Al año siguiente, la invasión alemana la obligó a regresar a Inglaterra. Las exposiciones que se celebraron durante su vida en la Hanover Gallery (1953, 1958), Londres, y tras su muerte en el Stedelijk Museum de Ámsterdam (1962) se centraron en presentar su enfoque visual. Sin embargo, la obra de Moss sigue sin ser suficientemente reconocida por su importancia dentro de los movimientos abstractos de entreguerras. La primera razón es la destrucción de sus obras en su estudio francés durante un bombardeo en 1944. La segunda es la estructura de la historia del arte, constituida en el marco de la dominación masculinista y la heterosexualidad obligatoria.

Fuera de la vista
En 1971, Linda Nochlin se preguntaba “¿Por qué no ha habido grandes mujeres artistas?” en su famoso ensayo que comparte título con esta pregunta urgente[3]. La crítica al canon histórico del arte occidental no es nueva, pero sigue siendo pertinente. Según Nochlin, el problema es sistémico: la estructura de las instituciones artísticas que dio forma a los programas, la financiación y las colecciones de los museos está construida sobre un sujeto blanco y masculino. Este sujeto se asume como “natural” en la narrativa y, por lo tanto, la historia del arte y las instituciones excluyen a las mujeres, a los queer y a los artistas no occidentales. Desde el ensayo de Nochlin, a lo largo de estos cincuenta años, la teoría feminista ha ampliado este discurso y los museos han ido revisando sus políticas junto con estos debates. Ahora, un discurso autocrítico está en auge. Sin embargo, la exclusión sistémica sigue entre nosotros y afecta tanto a las instituciones artísticas como a la vida cotidiana. La lucha contra las prácticas discriminatorias sistémicas debe ser un proceso continuo y renovarse inventando nuevas estrategias contra los también cambiantes aparatos de poder y formas de exclusión, dominación y violencia. Por lo tanto, es necesario y urgente que los museos se replanteen y reevalúen constantemente sus prioridades, políticas y prácticas para ser más inclusivos y justos.

El revisionismo histórico es una estrategia productiva para llenar el vacío existente en las colecciones y prácticas expositivas de los museos. Es una forma importante de comprometerse críticamente con la historia del arte. El revisionismo histórico feminista aborda la exclusión estructural de las mujeres artistas que son reclamadas por la historia[4]. La principal ambición de esta estrategia es incluir a aquellas que han sido ocultadas, suprimidas y dejadas de lado. Las estrategias revisionistas pueden revivir cualquier obra de arte del pasado para movilizar el pasado, el presente y el futuro.

La historia del arte tiende a debatirse como una serie de acontecimientos revolucionarios que representan de forma dominante al artista occidental masculino. El esquema de Alfred H. Barr en el catálogo de la exposición Cubismo y Arte Abstracto (1936) en el MoMA es un ejemplo de cómo se ha narrado el arte moderno a través de un diagrama de flujo cronológico en el que los movimientos conectados por flechas direccionales indican influencia y reacción[5] La historia del arte moderno de Barr se ha convertido en icónica y naturalizada. Sin embargo, Meyer Schapiro sugiere que el esquema de Barr sitúa “el arte de todo el mundo en… un único plano antihistórico y universal como panorama de las energías formalizadoras del hombre”[6] Asimismo, Griselda Pollock criticó el enfoque de Barr, ya que “crea una tradición que normaliza una historia del arte moderno particular y un conjunto de prácticas de género”[7] La narrativa de Barr establece una norma que se basa en el artista varón blanco heterosexual y se produce mediante una estructura de exclusión y subordinación.

Las políticas de inclusividad en las instituciones artísticas requieren, por tanto, una problematización del discurso masculino del modernismo[8]. Esta perspectiva ve la historia del arte como constituida por acontecimientos consecutivos, sincrónicos, y una linealidad de “-ismos”. Encontrar a una mujer artista en esta historia del arte moderno es muy raro. Mujeres artistas como Moss han sido tachadas de anacrónicas y de carecer de poder para producir conceptos críticos. El innovador concepto de doble línea de Moss ha permanecido casi siempre en las notas a pie de página de los escritos sobre Mondrian. Sus obras rara vez se han visto en público. Resulta llamativo que Composición en rojo, negro y blanco de Moss, tras su llegada a la colección del Stedelijk Museum en 1962, se expusiera por primera vez en su exposición individual póstuma del mismo año y, aparte de las presentaciones de colección no registradas, solo en otras tres exposiciones, la última de las cuales es Artistas migrantes en París (2019-2020) en el Stedelijk[9] Sus obras han permanecido en la sombra durante mucho tiempo. Sin embargo, pueden ampliar nuestra visión hacia el arte abstracto y el espacio.

Además, como escribe Lucy Howarth, si la historia del arte sigue percibiéndose como una serie de desarrollos revolucionarios, artistas como Moss pueden evaluarse como un retroceso[10]. Sin embargo, la obra de Moss nos ofrece conceptos estéticos innovadores, y una visión anacrónica hacia Moss puede subvertirse para considerar cuestiones socioculturales contemporáneas. Giorgio Agamben sugiere que “lo contemporáneo es lo intempestivo y a través del anacronismo somos más capaces de captar nuestro tiempo”[11] Además, Elizabeth Grosz escribe:

Algo es inoportuno por ser anacrónico, que es otra forma de decir que aún no se ha agotado en su pasado y todavía tiene algo que ofrecer que permanece sin explotar. La teoría feminista se ha dirigido a releer el pasado en busca de lo que hay en él sin utilizar[12].

En lugar de ser monológica y estática, la historia del arte moderno puede ser dinámica y diacrónica. Agamben propone un régimen de historicidad representado espacialmente por una línea quebrada, en oposición a la continuidad cronológica[13]. Esta línea quebrada recuerda las líneas truncadas de la obra de Moss Composición en rojo, negro y blanco. La estructura espacial de Moss puede interpretarse como una manifestación visual de la idea que Agamben tiene de la historia. En esta pintura abstracta, Moss realiza una movilidad incesante: las formas orbitan rítmicamente, rápidas y lentas, sin límites. El movimiento de las líneas en el lienzo de Moss y la composición dinámica nos inspiran a imaginar una historia del arte no sincrónica, dinámica y móvil.

En lugar de ser monológica y estática, la historia del arte moderno puede ser dinámica y diacrónica. Agamben propone un régimen de historicidad representado espacialmente por una línea quebrada, en oposición a la continuidad cronológica[13]. Esta línea quebrada recuerda las líneas truncadas de la obra de Moss Composición en rojo, negro y blanco. La estructura espacial de Moss puede interpretarse como una manifestación visual de la idea que Agamben tiene de la historia. En esta pintura abstracta, Moss realiza una movilidad incesante: las formas orbitan rítmicamente, rápidas y lentas, sin límites. El movimiento de las líneas en el lienzo de Moss y la composición dinámica nos inspiran a imaginar una historia del arte no sincrónica, dinámica y móvil.

Cuerpo y espacio
Para Moss, el arte y la vida eran inseparables, y ambos están siempre en un estado de devenir[14]. La idea de Moss de un “estado de devenir” se revela en sus composiciones dinámicas. Moss nos ofrece un nuevo concepto del espacio en la abstracción geométrica creando un movimiento perpetuo en el lienzo a través de la doble línea y las líneas truncadas. Moss suele ser reconocida por sus líneas dobles, visibles en la mayoría de sus cuadros. Sin embargo, más tarde desarrolló las líneas truncadas, que son igualmente esenciales para entender a Moss. Ambas son su solución al espacio estático del plano pictórico; las líneas crean un flujo en la superficie del lienzo con una energía ilimitada. El elemento clave para comprender plenamente a Moss es examinar el modo en que capta y abstrae el espacio. Moss percibe el movimiento en el espacio con su cuerpo y al mismo tiempo crea espacio pictórico con esta percepción. Moss concibe el espacio mediante el movimiento en términos de primacía de la corporeidad. Por lo tanto, las pinturas de Moss nos permiten concebir la corporalidad en términos diferentes a efectos feministas.

La mayoría de los escritos sobre Moss exploran esta doble línea; primero mencionan a Moss como seguidora de Mondrian y luego exploran su contribución al lenguaje abstracto. Por ejemplo, en un catálogo de 1974 de obras de Mondrian en colecciones holandesas, Cor Blok escribe que, tras la introducción de las líneas dobles por parte de Moss, Mondrian las adoptó en sus composiciones y empezó a duplicar o multiplicar sus líneas a principios de los años 30.[15] Además, Yve-Aiain Bois menciona la aparición de Moss en el primer número de Abstraction Création. Bois escribe sobre su adhesión a la estética de Mondrian y más tarde señala su contribución de la línea doble al vocabulario de Mondrian[16]. De forma similar, Carel Blotkamp escribe sobre Mondrian: “La línea doble la tomó prestada con toda seguridad de uno de sus discípulos más fieles… Marlow Moss”[17].

En realidad, fue Moss quien influyó en Mondrian para que utilizara la doble línea, pero la invención de Moss ha quedado en su mayor parte en las notas a pie de página de Mondrian[18]. Debemos preguntarnos por qué Moss introdujo las líneas y cuál fue el efecto de ello. Para Moss, en los cuadros de Mondrian faltaba movimiento y la doble línea ofrecía una solución. Hasta 1931, Mondrian pretendía “congelar el tiempo y obtener un equilibrio universal estático en el que todo estuviera neutralizado, cada fuerza anulada por su opuesto”. Sin embargo, como ya se ha comentado, Mondrian dio marcha atrás a partir de 1932 y exploró el dinamismo en su obra adoptando la “línea doble”[19] Moss introdujo por primera vez las líneas en sus cuadros en 1931. Las líneas son perfectamente visibles en las dos obras de 1931 publicadas en el primer número de Abstraction-Création (1932). Causaron sensación en el grupo Abstraction-Création.

Más adelante, Moss aseguró otro tipo de movimiento en el espacio: introdujo líneas truncadas. Este tipo de líneas son más visibles en sus obras posteriores, sobre todo de la década de 1950, como Composición en rojo, negro y blanco. Moss amplía los contornos del lienzo con sus líneas. En Composición en rojo, negro y blanco, la línea de la esquina superior derecha y la de la esquina inferior izquierda parecen filtrarse desde el borde del cuadro. Las mitades superior e inferior del cuadro se ven forzadas a separarse por un movimiento que parece ir más allá del lienzo y conectarlo con su entorno. Las líneas fluyen sobre y desde la superficie del cuadro. Traspasa los límites espaciales del lienzo.
Otro óleo sobre lienzo, Azul, rojo, negro y blanco (nº 3) (1953), realizado el mismo año que Composición en rojo, negro y blanco, comparte estas características. También se expuso en la muestra individual que Moss organizó en 1962 en el Stedelijk Museum. Ambos cuadros son el resultado de su exploración del movimiento en series de pinturas realizadas entre 1950 y 1953[20] La estructura geométrica de estas obras crea un cambio dinámico en el plano pictórico. En ambas, las líneas parecen sobresalir de la superficie pictórica. En Azul, rojo, negro y blanco (nº 3), las líneas cortas crean dinamismo al cruzarse en el lado izquierdo. Una de las líneas cortas situada en la parte superior derecha sobresale de la superficie, mientras que la que está debajo se desplaza hacia la izquierda. Parecen moverse en direcciones opuestas. Las líneas rojas y negras más cortas se magnetizan y se mueven una hacia la otra. La movilidad está garantizada por la energía magnética entre las líneas.
Del mismo modo, volviendo a Composición en rojo, negro y blanco, las líneas del centro se magnetizan entre sí y también interactúan con el cuadrado rojo. Las formas geométricas fluctúan en la superficie, afectadas por la tensión entre estas líneas. Hay una movilidad perpetua, una energía continua en los lienzos de Moss. Sus composiciones son como un flujo y reflujo, un patrón recurrente de ir y venir. El flujo y reflujo designan la marea descendente y la marea ascendente. La marea es el cambio cíclico en la superficie del mar causado por las posiciones relativas de la Luna y el Sol. Las posiciones relativas de las líneas crean un movimiento similar en la superficie del lienzo de Moss. La superficie del lienzo está en movimiento, como la superficie del mar. Este fenómeno geográfico puede percibirse como una metáfora espacial que nos informa sobre la aproximación de Moss al espacio a medida que sus líneas fluyen sobre la superficie del lienzo.
Moss percibe y siente su entorno a través del cuerpo. Para Moss, el espacio se construye mediante el movimiento, por lo que visualiza el flujo constante. El lienzo se nutre de la movilidad del cuerpo y viceversa. Moss desestabiliza el lienzo estático llevando la corporeidad a su superficie. En el catálogo de la exposición de Moss en el Stedelijk, su socio, el escritor A.H. Nijhoff, cita a Moss: «No soy pintor, no veo la forma, sólo veo espacio, movimiento y luz», y luego desarrolla la obsesión de Moss por el espacio, el movimiento y la luz con una anécdota biográfica:

Al periodo juvenil de intenso trabajo musical le siguen largos años de enfermedad (tuberculosis) y ociosidad forzada. Al reanudar la vida normal, siente ansias de movimiento, de actividad…. Mientras tanto, su vitalidad encuentra una salida en el baile. Toma clases de ballet. De nuevo el ritmo, el movimiento en el espacio, la arquitectura coreográfica[21].

Al bailar ballet, Moss establece una relación con el espacio a través de los movimientos corporales. Su comprensión del espacio es un ejemplo de encarnación del espacio. Se compromete con el ballet como una forma de abrazar el movimiento en el espacio. Su forma de entender el espacio a través del movimiento corporal puede interpretarse como una estrategia feminista.
Las mujeres han sido alienadas y cosificadas a través de la contención y la derogación del cuerpo femenino. Las conceptualizaciones patriarcales del cuerpo formaban una «Mujer» universal en términos esencialistas y ahistóricos. Suponía un cuerpo precultural, prelingüístico, prosocial y natural. Cuestionar estos conceptos patriarcales del cuerpo se aplica a las ambiciones feministas. Moss crea un marco para reconocer los cuerpos de las mujeres como activos, móviles, líquidos y autónomos. Dado que Moss ve tanto la vida como el arte como un estado constante de devenir, su conceptualización del cuerpo también está constituida por procesos de devenir. Las obras abstractas de Moss tienen el potencial de reteorizar el cuerpo fuera de los marcos patriarcales. El cuerpo no es un estado fijo del ser, sino que fluye.
Las líneas truncadas que constituyen el apogeo de su ambición de espacio, movimiento y luz se asemejan a los pequeños, delicados pero eficaces gestos del ballet. La movilidad de los lienzos de Moss la emparenta más con su maestro de la Académie Moderne, Fernand Léger, que con Mondrian[22]. No es casualidad que Léger también se relacione con el ballet en su única película, Ballet Mécanique (1924), en la que establece un paralelismo entre el movimiento del hombre, la máquina y la ciudad. Si Moss entiende el espacio a través del movimiento corporal, entonces el desbordamiento de líneas en los cuadros de Moss señala los límites expandibles del cuerpo.
Para la geógrafa feminista Gill Valentine, el género y el espacio se controlan y producen a través del mismo marco regulador:

El género es la estilización repetida del cuerpo, un conjunto de actos repetidos dentro de un marco regulador muy rígido que congelan nuestro tiempo para producir la apariencia de sustancia, de un «espíritu natural». Del mismo modo, la heterosexualización del espacio es un acto performativo naturalizado a través de la repetición y la regulación. Estos actos producen un «cúmulo» de suposiciones incrustadas en las prácticas de la vida pública sobre lo que constituye un «comportamiento adecuado» y que se fusionan con el tiempo para dar la apariencia de una producción «adecuada» o «normal» del espacio[23].

Como dice Valentine, tanto la regulación del género como la del espacio requieren un acto coherente y repetitivo. Si junto al paralelismo de Valentine entre género y espacio traemos a colación la famosa conceptualización de Judith Butler del género como una configuración estilizada a través de actos y gestos corporales repetitivos, el objetivo de Moss, trastocar el espacio cerrado y regulado de una cuadrícula de una sola línea a través de la movilidad corporal visualizada como líneas que fluyen, abre un espacio para imaginar una teoría feminista del cuerpo[24]. Tanto el cuerpo como el espacio son artefactos socioculturales, y Moss, que los entiende como tales, desafía las nociones tradicionales de cuerpo, género y espacio. De ahí que lleve la corporeidad al lienzo y cree un espacio dinámico en el que los comportamientos espaciales y de género puedan desnaturalizarse y desplazarse.
Moss crea una forma corpórea de conocimiento del espacio que se opone a la racionalidad masculinista. Para Gillian Rose, otra geógrafa feminista, la racionalidad masculinista es una forma de conocimiento que presupone un conocedor que cree que puede separarse de su cuerpo[25]. En la misma línea, Briony Fer escribe que el esfuerzo de Mondrian por la estabilidad en el lienzo se alinea con su objetivo de reducir la corporeidad fuera del plano pictórico[26]. [26] El discurso neoplástico de Mondrian «pretende encontrar una “nueva plástica”, o una “nueva estructura”, “reduciendo la corporeidad de los objetos a una composición de planos que dan la ilusión de yacer en un solo plano”»[27] Renuncia al cuerpo fuera del lienzo, creando un espacio contenido e incorpóreo.
La reducción del cuerpo fuera del cuadro oculta la construcción social del cuerpo y el género, ya que el género es un acto corporal. En la abstracción geométrica incorpórea, en el espacio incorpóreo del lienzo, las identidades de género siguen siendo una ilusión, imposible de «encarnar», igual que la ilusión de los objetos que yacen en un plano.
No obstante, el espacio dinámico de Moss puede permitir una conceptualización feminista de la corporeidad y las identidades de género. Se puede establecer una analogía entre el espacio físico, el espacio del lienzo, y el suelo metafórico de la identidad de género a través de la metáfora espacial de Butler del «suelo». Butler sugirió que «el suelo de la identidad de género es la repetición estilizada de actos a través del tiempo y no una identidad aparentemente sin fisuras»[28] El espacio dinámico de Moss expone que no hay un «suelo sustancial de identidad» sino una «discontinuidad ocasional». La discontinuidad de líneas en el lienzo de Moss es una manifestación abstracta de la discontinuidad de las identidades de género. El identificador «mujer» en el que se basa el feminismo no es un sujeto estable y universal, sino un proceso. Como la corporeidad es la condición material de la subjetividad, entonces el cuerpo es un proceso. En consecuencia, el sujeto feminista no es estable, siempre cambia y se desborda de los marcos rígidos, como las líneas de Moss.
Liz Bondi sugiere que la subjetividad es una posición. Hay que preguntarse «¿dónde estoy?» o «¿dónde me sitúo?» para posicionarse; esto crea la posición del sujeto[29]. Utiliza términos geográficos de referencia para revelar cómo se constituye la subjetividad. Bondi afirma que pensar en términos de espacio nos ayuda a entender la identidad como proceso, siempre fracturada y múltiple, y por tanto contradictoria.
Esta contradicción coincide con el concepto de «espacio paradójico» que Gillian Rose desarrolló para entender la producción del espacio social en relación con el género. La geografía paradójica es un espacio en el que el sujeto está en todas partes y en todas partes. Está al margen y en el centro al mismo tiempo. El espacio paradójico nos permite «reconocer tanto el poder de los discursos hegemónicos como insistir en la posibilidad de resistencia». Es una «geografía multidimensional estructurada por la diversidad contradictoria simultánea de las relaciones sociales». Es una geografía tan múltiple como contradictoria…. Fragmentan el peso muerto del espacio masculinista y rompen sus exclusiones…. El espacio paradójico, por tanto, es un espacio imaginado para articular una relación problemática con los discursos hegemónicos del masculinismo”[30] Así, el sujeto no puede definir una posición concreta y estable y, por tanto, la subjetividad nunca es sólida y definitiva. En consecuencia, los límites materiales del sujeto, los límites del cuerpo, son inestables. Este espacio, cuerpo y sujeto paradójicos encuentran su respuesta visual en el flujo de las pinturas de Moss.

De hecho, en el catálogo de la retrospectiva póstuma de Moss en la Galería Carus de Nueva York, en 1979, Randy Rosen cita a Moss, escribiendo: «El secreto de la forma no reside en la forma en sí misma, sino en el continuo cambio y desplazamiento de las formas»[31] Rosen continúa:

El ojo ya no puede «fijarse» en una forma concreta, ni localizar la fuente estructuradora, ni determinar el principio o el final del campo espacial. El lienzo se ha convertido en un puro campo de energía. Las últimas obras de Marlow Moss constituyen una importante nueva percepción del espacio. Aunque sigue empleando una lectura espacial coherente, las paradojas y la mutabilidad del espacio están implícitas. Es un concepto del espacio que los artistas contemporáneos de nuestro tiempo siguen explorando[32].

Hay una energía continua en los cuadros de Moss. Las formas geométricas y las líneas crean una tensión en el espacio pictórico. Moss nos ofrece un espacio que reconoce que el cuerpo se desplaza dentro del espacio y también interactúa con otros cuerpos sobre un terreno inestable. De este modo, el cuerpo está en proceso de convertirse, lo que concuerda con el enfoque teórico feminista del cuerpo.

Conclusión

Moss no sólo desafía las normas de género por su aspecto, por su nombre, por apropiarse de un look masculino con sus trajes sastre, sus fustas y su corte de pelo corto, sino también con sus líneas dobles y quebradas. Moss trastoca el discurso espacial masculinista a través de su percepción del espacio. Sus líneas truncadas que flotan libremente crean un imaginario estético para una subjetividad fracturada y discontinua, garantizada por un relato feminista del espacio y el cuerpo. Su forma de relacionarse con el movimiento a través del cuerpo crea un espacio paradójico. En este espacio, el sujeto es contradictorio y el cuerpo no puede entenderse como un cuerpo precultural, prosocial y puro, sino como un objeto social y discursivo, un cuerpo ligado al orden del deseo, la significación y el poder[33].

El cuerpo es importante para entender la existencia cultural y social de las mujeres, pero el feminismo debería introducir la corporeidad evitando conceptos del cuerpo como un objeto biológicamente dado o como una pantalla en la que se pudiera proyectar lo masculino y lo femenino[34]. En su lugar, las mujeres deberían desarrollar modelos autónomos del cuerpo y crear posiciones contradictorias. Los espacios paradójicos pueden desafiar las conceptualizaciones masculinas del cuerpo, la subjetividad y el espacio. Como escribió Butler con perspicacia

Los debates feministas contemporáneos sobre los significados del género conducen una y otra vez a una cierta sensación de problema, como si la indeterminación del género pudiera culminar finalmente en el fracaso del feminismo. Tal vez los problemas no tengan por qué tener un significado tan negativo. Causar problemas era, dentro del discurso imperante en mi infancia, algo que nunca se debía hacer precisamente porque eso te metería en problemas. La rebelión y su reprimenda parecían estar atrapadas en los mismos términos, un fenómeno que dio lugar a mi primera percepción crítica de la sutil artimaña del poder: la ley imperante amenazaba con meterte en líos, incluso te metía en líos, todo para mantenerte alejada de los líos. De ahí que llegara a la conclusión de que los problemas son inevitables y la tarea, cuál es la mejor manera de crearlos, cuál es la mejor manera de estar en ellos[35].

Sin duda, Marlow Moss causó problemas. La tarea no consiste en estabilizar un sujeto y un cuerpo coherentes en los debates feministas, sino en reconocer una multiplicidad de cuerpos en un campo de diferencias. Además, los museos, como espacios para coleccionar, exponer y escribir la historia del arte, pueden producir conceptos espaciales alternativos siendo más inclusivos y causando problemas de género. Exponer, coleccionar y también encargar obras a mujeres artistas son herramientas muy cruciales para trastocar el orden patriarcal de la historia del arte y de las instituciones artísticas. Mientras los museos se redefinen actualmente, la historia del arte debería reescribirse desde una perspectiva más inclusiva. Propongo que es esencial que las instituciones artísticas revisen a las artistas que han quedado en la sombra. Como dice Adrienne Rich: «La revisión -el acto de mirar atrás, de ver con ojos nuevos, de entrar en un texto antiguo desde una nueva dirección crítica- es para la mujer algo más que un capítulo de la historia cultural: es un acto de supervivencia»[36].

Sobre la autora
Nacida en 1992 en Estambul, Gülce Özkara se licenció en Sociología por la Université Paris X Nanterre y posteriormente obtuvo un máster en Estudios Culturales en la Universidad Bilgi de Estambul. Özkara fue comisaria adjunta de la exposición colectiva “Miniature 2.0: La miniatura en el arte contemporáneo” (2020-2021) en el Museo Pera de Estambul. Anteriormente, trabajó como representante de artistas en Pilot Gallery, Estambul. También ha colaborado en varias publicaciones como editora y escritora. Özkara está interesada en las estrategias culturales para reparar las narrativas históricas.

Las referencias bibliográficas no se tradujeron

[1] Fernand Léger, “The Machine Aesthetic: The Manufactured Object, the Artisan, and the

Artist,” in The Documents of 20th Century Art, ed. Edward F. Fry (London: Thames & Hudson, 1973).

[2] Marlow Moss, quoted in Lucy Harriet Amy Howarth, “Marlow Moss (1889–1958)” (PhD dissertation, University of Plymouth, 2008), 1.

[3] Linda Nochlin, Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists? (London: Thames & Hudson, 2021).

[4] Maura Reilly, Curatorial Activism: Towards an Ethics of Curating (London: Thames & Hudson, 2018), 23.

[5] See the catalogue at MoMA’s website.

[6] Meyer Schapiro, “Nature of Abstract Art,” in Abstraction, ed. Maria Lind (London: Whitechapel Gallery / Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013), 34.

[7] Griselda Pollock, Vision and Difference: Feminism, Femininity and Histories of Art (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), 71–72.

[8] Ibid., 72.

[9] The other three shows were: Europa rondom, Stedelijk Museum, 1997; Summer 2013 : Linder, Barbara Hepworth, Marlow Moss, Gareth Jones, Patrick Heron, Nick Relph, R H Quaytman, Allen Rupersberg = In Focus : Marlow Moss = BP Spotlight : Marlow Moss, Tate Saint Ives, 2013; 100 jaar De Stijl, Stedelijk Museum, 2016.

[10]  Lucy Howarth, Marlow Moss, Modern Women Artists (Sussex: Eiderdown Books, 2019), 17.

[11] Giorgio Agamben, “What is Contemporary?,” in What is an Apparatus?, ed. Werner Hamacher (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009), 40–41.

[12]  Elizabeth Grosz, “The Untimeliness of Feminist Theory,” NORA—Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research 18, no. 1 (2010): 48–51.

[13] Giorgio Agamben, Infancy and History: The Destruction of Experience (London: Verso, 1993).

[14] The wall text of Moss’s work Composition in Red, Black and White (1953) exhibited in the Stedelijk Museum’s group exhibition Migrant Artists in Paris stated: “Art is—as Life—forever in the state of Becoming.”

[15] Howarth, “Marlow Moss,” 30.

[16] Yve-Alain Bois et al., Piet Mondrian 1872–1944 (Boston, New York, Toronto, London: Bullfinch Press, Little Brown and Company, 1994), 62. Quoted in Howarth, “Marlow Moss,” 31.

[17] Carel Blotkamp, Mondrian: The Art of Destruction (London: Reaktion Books, 1994), 214. Quoted in Howarth, “Marlow Moss,” 31.

[18] As Howarth explains, the double line has an important place in the interpretation of Moss, especially used in queer readings which evoke the Derridean concept of différance. However, in this manuscript I mostly engage with feminist theory. Also, the truncated lines have an equally important place as the double lines. Moss used both types lines to ensure movement in the composition.

[19] Yve-Alain Bois, “Slow (Fast) Modern,” in Time, ed. Amelia Groom (London: Whitechapel Gallery / Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013), 49.

[20] Howarth, “Marlow Moss,” 277.

[21] Antoinette Hendrika Nijhoff-Wind, ed., Marlow Moss, exh. cat. (Amsterdam: Stedelijk Museum, 1962).

[22] Howarth, “Marlow Moss,” 14.

[23] Gill Valentine, “(Re)Negotiating the ‘heterosexual street,’” in Bodyspace:

Destabilizing Geographies of Gender and Sexuality, ed. N. Duncan (London and New York: Routledge, 1996),

146–55, 148.

[24] Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1999), 179.

[25] Gillian Rose, Feminism and Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1993), 155.

[26] Briony Fer, On Abstract Art (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 41.

[27] Ibid., 40.

[28] Butler, Gender Trouble, 179.

[29] Liz Bondi, “Locating Identity Politics,” in Place and the Politics of Identity, eds. Steve Pile and Michael Keith (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), 82–100.

[30] Rose, Feminism and Geography, 155.

[31] Randy Rosen, Marlow Moss, exh. cat. (New York: Carus Gallery, 1979), 1.

[32] Ibid., 2.

[33] Elizabeth Grosz, Volatile Bodies: Toward a Corporeal Feminism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 17–18.

[34] Ibid., 18.

[35] Butler, Gender Trouble, xxvii.

[36] Adrienne Rich, On Lies, Secrets, and Silence: Selected Prose 1966–1978 (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1979).

Beginnings of Concrete Art

Concrete art, Constructivism, Constructivism


Beginnings of Concrete Art

Constructivism

Concrete Art can trace its origins back to the early-twentieth-century movement of Constructivism, which in turn cannot be discussed in isolation from the invigorating effects of the 1917 Russian Revolution. Since the late 1900s, Russian artists such as the Suprematist Kazimir Malevich, and various individuals attached to movements such as Rayonism, Neo-Primitivism, and Cubo-Futurism, had been undertaking exercises in breaking down the picture plane and redefining sculptural form. This aim was shared with other movements across Europe, such as Cubism, but in the febrile political atmosphere of Russia in the mid-1910s it was increasingly pegged to a revolutionary political agenda. Non-figurative representation was seized on as a metaphor for the revolutions in thought and perception that the Revolution would usher in.

Amongst the many artists central to this yoking together of revolutionary and artistic sentiment were the sculptor Naum Gabo, his brother Antoine Pevsner, Varvara Stepanova and her husband Alexander Rodchenko, and Vladimir Tatlin. As significant as the revolutionary impetus of their work – and closely related to it – was a current of logical, scientific, anti-emotional thought. To these artists, non-figurative expression became a way of representing the objective scientific and mathematical forces that configured the universe’s appearance to the naked eye. By representing those forces, their artworks would become the talismans around which Soviet society and psychology would construct itself. In their 1920 statement “The Realistic Manifesto”, Gabo and Pevsner asserted: “we construct our work as the universe constructs its own, as the engineer constructs his bridges, as the mathematician his formula of the orbits”. This basic sentiment remained at the core of much Concrete Art.

De Stijl and Neo-Plasticism

While Constructivism was being defined and debated in Russia, a group of artists based in the Netherlands were developing a geometrical abstraction of similar import, though with a more spiritual, less explicitly politicized value. Chief amongst them was the Dutch painter Piet Mondrian, who, during the 1900s-10s, was influenced first by Seurat’s Pointillism and then by Picasso and Braques’s Analytical Cubism. Attracted to artistic styles that proposed universally applicable principles of composition – and committed to the logical dissection of the picture plane – he fell increasingly under the sway of the Theosophical movement. In particular, he was inspired by the Neo-Platonist mathematician M.H.J. Schoenmaker, who in his 1916 text Principles of Plastic Mathematics had proposed a system of mathematical forms underlying all perceptible reality, consisting of contrasting horizontals and verticals and the three primary colors.

Piet Mondrian's <i>Composition with Large Red Plane, Yellow, Black, Gray, and Blue</i> (1921) sums up many of the principles of Neo-Plasticism

The following year Mondrian, along with the Dutch artists Theo van Doesburg, Vilmos Huszár and Bart van der Leck, and the architects J.J. Oud, Gerrit Rietveld and Robert van ‘t Hoff, founded the journal De Stijl. It was dedicated to the newfound principles of abstraction that Mondrian had discovered in theosophical theory and mathematics, and which other group members had reached independently. Pioneered by Mondrian and dubbed “Neo-Plasticism”, the style promoted in the journal was based on a strict, non-symmetrical arrangement of vertical and horizontal elements, with the color-palette restricted to black, white, red, yellow and blue. The aim, in short, was to forge a universal language for art that could unite peoples and cultures in the wake of the First World War. Like Constructivism in Russia, this new style was intended to transcend medium boundaries, with comparable principles being applied to design and architecture.

If Constructivism supplied the political and rational vigor of the Concrete Art movement, Neo-Plasticism provided an underlying spiritual impetus, while still being rooted in a utopian social vision, and in comparable principles of rational, geometrical abstraction. In practical terms, debates in and around the De Stijl grouping gave rise to the coinage of the term Concrete Art, as its most outspoken member Theo van Doesburg became increasingly frustrated with the strict formalism of Mondrian, and hunted out new forms and terminologies.

Towards Concrete Art: Theo Van Doesburg at the Bauhaus and Beyond

Van Doesburg's <i>Simultaneous Counter-composition</i> (1929)

Amongst the sources of friction in the Neo-Plasticist movement during the early 1920s was that Theo van Doesburg was increasingly engaged with the ideology of the Bauhaus school. Formed in Weimar in 1919 by the architect Walter Gropius, the Bauhaus had by the early 1920s become the principle outpost of Constructivist aesthetics in Europe, particularly after László Moholy-Nagy took over the school’s “basic course” in 1923. Van Doesburg gave lectures on De Stijl at the Bauhaus in 1921, and in 1922 moved to Weimar to integrate himself with the faculty. He was considered too dogmatic by Gropius to be offered a teaching post, but based himself near the institution, teaching interested students about Constructivism, Dada and De Stijl.

During 1912-14, Mondrian had lived in Paris, and in 1919 he returned there. In 1923 van Doesburg left Weimar for the French capital to be closer to him, but their physical proximity – previously, they had never actually lived near to one another – led to animosity. Introverted and esoteric, Mondrian was often affronted by the pugnacious, extroverted van Doesburg.

Van Doesburg was also becoming increasingly frustrated with Neo-Plasticism’s insistence on the exclusive use of primary colors and straight lines. In 1926, he developed a style called Elementarism which introduced diagonals and mixed colors into the compositional lexicon: his Simultaneous Counter-Composition (1929-30) gives a sense of the distinctions which had emerged within the movement around De Stijl by that time. Mondrian, for his part, seceded from the group in protest.

Nonetheless, Mondrian and van Doesburg remained in Paris for the remainder of the 1920s, and it was partly their presence there which meant that the most vital developments in geometrical abstraction during that decade occurred within the city, culminating in the publication of Van Doesburg’s “Basis of Concrete Painting” in 1930, just a year before his death.

Key themes

Art Concret: Movement, Magazine and Manifesto

Theo van Doesburg's “Basis of Concrete Painting” as it appeared in Art Concret in (1930)

As well as hosting a burgeoning abstract art movement, Paris in the 1920s was the center of Surrealism, spearheaded by the writer André Breton, which had emerged partly from the anti-rationalist spirit of Dada. Combining Dada’s love of the inexplicable and other-worldly with an increasingly realistic method of representation, Surrealism stood for all that artists such as Mondrian and van Doesburg opposed. It was partly from this sense of collective opposition that various new groupings emerged in the late 1920s, committed to the cause of a rational, abstract art.

In 1929, the Uruguayan artist Joaquín Torres-García and the Belgian painter Michel Seuphor formed the group Cercle et Carré. Their aim was to bring together all artists committed to rational geometrical abstraction under an inclusive banner, but the dogmatic van Doesburg, who had initially been involved in discussions about the founding of the group, felt that it should be guided by more stringent principles. To that end, he formed the short-lived rival collective Art Concret, and in the single issue of its journal, Art Concret (1930), published what has since become known as the foundational document of Concrete Art:

We declare:

1. Art is universal.

2. The work of art must be entirely conceived and formed by the mind before its execution. It must receive nothing from nature’s given forms, or from sensuality, or sentimentality.

We wish to exclude lyricism, dramaticism, symbolism, etc.

3. The picture must be entirely constructed from purely plastic elements, that is, planes and colors. A pictorial element has no other meaning than “itself”, and thus the picture has no other meaning than “itself”.

4. The construction of the picture, as well as its elements, must be simple and visually controllable.

5. Technique must be mechanical, that is, exact, anti-impressionistic.

6. Effort for absolute clarity.

“Basis of Concrete Painting” (1930) is a typically terse, polemical tract, calling in effect for a synthesis of all previous movements towards the rational expression of non-naturalistic subject-matter. Espousing a universal compositional language freed from emotional, spiritual, and subjective impulses, van Doesburg laid the groundwork for a movement that would divorce itself entirely from the expression of perceptual reality or symbolic meaning. Concrete Art was to be a language of pure form, signifying nothing more itself, defined on universally intuitable and logical principles. At the root of this ideal were both the rational and political idealism of Russian Constructivism and the esotericism of De Stijl.

In 1931, van Doesburg died of a heart attack, aged just 47. His manifesto thus stands as an unrealized statement of intent, and it was down to a younger generation of artists to bring his vision of Concrete Art to fruition. One of van Doesburg’s last acts was to help found the group Abstraction-Création, which incorporated Cercle et Carré and Art Concret, uniting the sparring factions in Paris’s community of abstract artists.

Max Bill and the Allianz Group

Max Bill in 1970

Following Theo van Doesburg’s death, a figurehead was needed to spearhead the nascent Concrete Art movement. Although both Wassily Kandinsky and Hans (Jean) Arp penned their own manifestos for concrete art (in 1938 and 1942 respectively) it was necessary for this figure to emerge from the younger generation of abstract artists. Such a figure emerged in Switzerland in the form of the artist and polymath Max Bill. Born in 1908, Bill had studied at the Bauhaus during 1927-29, learning from artists including Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee, and, most significantly, Josef Albers. In 1929, Bill moved to Zurich to set up a studio, focusing on sculpture, painting and architecture while he earned money as a designer.

Influenced by his Bauhaus tutors, Bill sought through his work to express scientific and mathematical formulas in intuitive and tangible forms, expressing as little as possible of his own emotional investment in his work, and eschewing ‘subject-matter’. In this sense, his work was quintessentially Concrete. Nonetheless, Bill was twenty-five years younger than van Doesburg, and had no strong personal connection to him. His seizure on the term “Concrete Art” represented an act of homage, even appropriation. Still, it was primarily through Bill’s endeavors over the next two decades that Concrete Art found widespread recognition and acceptance.

In 1937, Bill formed the Allianz group to promote Concrete Art, along with the artists Richard Paul Lohse and Leo Leuppi. The group held its first show in Basel that year, and subsequent exhibitions were mounted across Switzerland during the late 1930s and early 1940s. Switzerland’s neutrality during the Second World War ensured the group’s continued productivity while artists and writers fled from violence and persecution in nearby countries.

Some of the group’s work – like Bill’s Endless Ribbon series of Möbius strip sculptures – aimed to express the new scientific theories which defined modernity, such as space-time relativity. Others, like Lohse, used methodical visual arrangements to draw out all the possible visual expressions of a mathematical or algebraic formula. In all cases, the compositional aesthetic was meticulously neat, and the work entirely divorced from ‘reality’ as such. At the same time, the Allianz artists were interested in exploring tonal harmonies, and their work is often vibrantly colorful as compared to that of the De Stijl artists, for example. In the context of the Second World War, Concrete Art also had an implicit political impetus: in attempting to define a universally intuitable visual language, Concrete Artists were attempting to lay the groundwork for intercultural dialogue and empathy.

From the 1940s onwards, Bill increasingly turned his attention to commercial and industrial design, following in the footsteps of the Constructivists, who had sought to merge artistic expression with functional craftsmanship. In 1944 Bill cemented his own reputation and that of the movement by staging the first international exhibition of Concrete Art in Basel, by which time the style was spreading across Europe and beyond.

Developments in Europe, 1945-60

By the mid-1940s, groups influenced by Bill and the Allianz group’s variant of Concrete Art had sprung up all over the world. These groups emerged organically, from a range of regional and national contexts, and expressed a huge range of creative impulses. But they were all buoyed by the internationalism of the post-war years, and united by an underlying interest in non-figurative expression, as well as an investment in science, maths and logic.

Limiting our focus to Europe, we can posit at least eight groups to emerge between the end of the Second World War and 1960. The earliest of these included Linien 2, founded in 1947 in Copenhagen, Movimento Arte Concreta, founded in Milan in 1948, Group Exat 51, founded in Zagreb in 1951, and Group Espace, founded in Paris in the same year. Amongst the significant artists of the post-war period to attach their names to these groups were the Danish Ib Geertsen, the Italian Alberto Magnelli (a former member of Abstraction-Création), and the sometime Orphist Sonia Delaunay.

Catalogue for the first exhibition of the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles (1946)

Paris remained a center of activity, with the first significant exhibition of Concrete Art following the Second World War held at the Gallerie René Drouin in 1945. This exhibition included the work of pioneers of Neo-Plasticism and other proto-Concrete movements, such as César Domela and Jean Gorin, exemplifying the tendency of Concrete Artists and theorists to claim developments prior to 1930 as steps in the advancement of the genre. In 1946, the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles was founded as a successor institution to the Abstraction-Création group: the new, Paris-based gallery promoted what it called “concrete art, non-figurative or abstract art”.

Developments in Latin America, 1945-60

Joaquin Torres Garcia's <i>Pintura Constructiva 6</i> (1929). Garcia returned to his native Uruguay in the 1930s and helped to spearhead the early development of concrete art in Latin America.

We might posit various reasons why the most significant developments in Concrete Art between the end of the Second World War and the start of the 1960s occurred in Latin America. One may be the newfound confidence that the major economies of Latin America, including Brazil and Argentina, had assumed in the aftermath of the war in Europe, shielded from its long-term effects while benefiting from the wartime economy. These countries had also welcomed an influx of European artists and theorists fleeing the conflict, while the appropriation of Realist and folk-art by authoritarian governments in Mexico and elsewhere led to a flight from an art of ‘easy messages’. Since the 1930s, artists like Joaquín Torres-García (co-founder of Cercle et Carré) in Uruguay and Emilio Pettoruti in Argentina, had also been pioneering a regional traditional of geometrical abstraction.

An important early event in the emergence of Latin-American Concrete Art was the publication of the single-issue art journal Arturo in Buenos Aires in 1944, leading to formation of the Asociación Arte Concreto-Invencíon in the city the following year, and the Arte Madí group in 1946. Both groups were heavily influenced by De Stijl and European Concrete aesthetics, and both were committed to an art of pure geometrical abstraction. However, in Latin America Concrete Art also inherited something of the political vigor of the Russian Constructivist vanguard, its products often intended to stand for new forms of social and political organization. The continent was, after all, undergoing a period of rapid industrial, technological and social development; as such, Concrete Art became an ambitious, future-oriented genre.

Gyula Kosice's <i>Monument to Democracy</i>, installed in Buenos Aires in 2000. Kosice was a founding member of the Arte Madí collective

The Asociación Arte Concreto-Invencíon was co-founded by Tomás Maldonado, a committed Marxist who believed that the logical forms of Concrete Art could form the basis for new models of societal organization and new psychological paradigms. As such, the Asociación artists – including Maldonado, Manuel Espinosa, Alfredo Hlito, Enio Iommi, Raúl Lozza and Lidy Prati – remained committed to a number of tight creative constraints. The Arte Madí artists – Gyula Kosice, Rhod Rothfuss and Carmelo Arden Quin – were also committed to the expression of modern life through Concrete Art. But their forms were more playful than those of the Asociación artists, moving more freely into the realms of sculpture, Kinetic and Light Art, and influencing the later emergence of Neo-Concretism in Brazil.

Following the emergence of the Arte Madí and Arte Concreto-Invencíon groups, similar collectives sprang up elsewhere, such as the Grupo de Arte No Figurativo in Montevideo, Uruguay, the Grupo Frente in Rio de Janeiro, and Grupo Ruptura in São Paulo. All three were formed in 1952, a year after a major retrospective of Max Bill’s work in São Paulo had cemented his reputation amongst Latin-American Concretists. The latter two groups proved particularly influential on subsequent developments in Concrete Art. Grupo Frente included the artists Lygia Clark, Hélio Oiticica and Lygia Pape, all of whom were involved in the conceptualization of Neo-Concretism at the close of the decade. The Grupo Ruptura, meanwhile, laid the foundations for the emergence of Concrete Poetry – a kind of visual poetry influenced by Concrete Art – through their creative exchanges with the poets of São Paulo’s Noigandres collective.

The construction of Brazil’s new capital Brasília, during 1956-60, on principles strongly influenced by International Style architecture, Constructivism, and the country’s emergent Concrete Art movement, shows the significance of the movement in Latin America. It was here, and not in Europe, that the principles of Concrete Art were most strikingly advanced at mid-century.

The Hochschule für Gestaltung

The Hoschschule für Gestaltung campus, designed by Max Bill

The most significant late development in Concrete Art in Europe was probably the formation of the Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm, West Germany in 1953. Co-founded by Max Bill and Inge Scholl, sister of the murdered White Rose Movement leaders Hans and Sophie Scholl, the HfG was established as a successor institute to the Bauhaus, which had closed under Nazi pressure in 1933. As such, it was committed both to the cultural and moral rebirth of Germany and to advancing the principles of abstract art, functional design, and architecture. Again, the aesthetics of Concrete Art were integrated with a progressive political agenda.

Though the school had closed by 1968, many artists connected to the Concrete Art movement, including Tomás Maldonado and Josef Albers, were involved in designing or teaching courses at Ulm, and so the influence of Concrete Art was impressed upon a further generation of designers, architects, and artists. As such, and because of the HfG’s interdisciplinary approach, the principles of Concrete Art remained in fruitful dialogue with functional design and architecture even at this late stage of its evolution. Nowhere is this more evident than in the design of the HfG campus itself by Max Bill, on principles strongly influenced by his aesthetic as an artist, and by International Style architecture.

The poet Eugen Gomringer also worked at the school, as a secretary to Bill (who was the Hochschule’s first rector). In 1955, Gomringer hosted the Brazilian poet Décio Pignatari, a representative of the São Paulo based Noigandres group. This resulted in the development of Concrete Poetry, which took on its own tenor and character as it merged with developments in late Anglo-American literary modernism, serving as one of the Concrete Art movement’s lasting legacies.

Later Developments – After Concrete Art

Neo-Concretism

Hélio Oiticica's installation at the Inhotim Institute in Brumadinho, Brazil

With the inauguration of the São Paulo Biennial in 1951 and the mounting of a National Exhibition of Concrete Art in São Paulo in 1956, Brazil had established itself as one of the centers of the modern art-world, and of the Concrete Art movement in particular.

However, by the close of the 1950s, many Brazilian artists felt that Concrete Art had become inordinately narrow and inadvertently colonialist in its outlook, binding itself to strict rules of composition that were overly invested in rationalism, and tethered to the pre-war achievements of European artists. A number of artists involved in the Grupo Frente, including Lygia Clark, Lygia Pape, and Hélio Oiticica began producing artworks more governed by intuitive, phenomenological interactions with materials and space, inviting more creative interactions with the viewer.

Their sentiments found collective expression through the writing of a poet, Ferreira Gullar, who was himself frustrated with the rationalistic approach of the Noigandres Concrete Poets Augusto and Haroldo de Campos and Décio Pignatari. In 1959, with the support of Pape, Clark, Oiticica and others, he published a “Neo-Concrete Manifesto” in the Jornal do Brasil, in response to an exhibition of Neo-Concrete Art recently staged in Rio de Janeiro:

We use the term “neo-concrete” to differentiate ourselves from those committed to non-figurative “geometric” art (Neoplasticism, Constructivism, Suprematism, the School of Ulm) and particularly the kind of concrete art that is influenced by a dangerously acute rationalism.

The Neo-Concrete movement was short-lived, as by the 1960s its founding members were moving into event-based and conceptual practices, but its influence has, ironically, been far more widely felt than the movement it supplanted. In placing the affective, sensory relationship between viewer and artwork at the center of its concerns, it predicted and helped to bring about a more general sea-change in modern art from the 1960s onwards; it was particularly analogous to the contemporaneous development of Minimalism in North America.

Kinetic Art

If Concrete Art in post-war Europe represented a reaffirmation of the principles of geometric abstraction within painting and sculpture, Kinetic Art – and the overlapping movement of Op Art – represented the extension of Constructivist principles into the realm of moving objects. Like Neo-Concretism, its heyday occurred around the time that the Concrete Art movement was waning. Nonetheless, it developed partly through dialogue with the older movement, and can be seen as an aspect of its legacy

By the 1950s, artists such as Victor Vasarely in France and Alexander Calder in the USA (and, slightly later, Bridget Riley in England) had applied their fascination with logical constructive principles and non-figurative form to artworks which gave the impression of motion, or which literally moved. In extending the artwork in time as well as space, they applied concrete principles of construction to a new dimension of expression, breaking down the established boundaries of geometrical abstraction.

Other artists, such as the French-Hungarian Nicholas Schöffer, produced Kinetic works powered by computers that would move in response to external stimuli – such as his CYSP 1 (1956) – heralding the emergence of Systems Art and Cybernetic Art. Concrete and Constructivist principles were extended into the realm of semi-autonomous machines, presented as artworks, or even as artists (CYSP 1 famously performed in a ballet). In the face of such developments, Concrete Art seemed increasingly staid in its ambitions. Nonetheless its advances prefigured and inspired those of Kinetic Art, which also drew in Concrete Artists such as Gyula Kosice.

Concrete Poetry

Décio Pignatari's concrete poem “Bebe Coca Cola” (1957) offers an ironic commentary on North-American consumerism. The word “cola” mutates into the word “cloaca”, associated with waste and excrement.

Like Constructivism, Concrete Art was intended to define compositional principles so elementary that they would transcend medium boundaries. One aspect of this vision was realised in the mid-1950s through the emergence of Concrete Poetry. Through the collective endeavors of the Swiss poet Eugen Gomringer – based at the Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm – and the Brazilian poets of the Noigandres collectives (consisting of the brothers Augusto and Haroldo de Campos and Décio Pignatari), a style of poetry was defined that spread across continents, and which responded to the compositional advances of Concrete Art. The first manifesto of Concrete Poetry was written by Gomringer in 1954, though its tenets were firmly established by the Noigandres’s “Pilot Plan for Concrete Poetry” in 1958.

The aim of Concrete Poetry was that words would be used in the same ways as the compositional elements of a Concrete Artwork, referring to nothing more than the compositional logic of the poem itself, and often presented in visual patterns borrowed from Concrete Art. Though this proved an almost impossible aim to realise in the long term, Concrete Poetry nonetheless inspired an international movement, with more clusters of Concrete Poets appearing across the world during the 1950s-60s – and in more locations – than had cells of Concrete Artists during the 1940s-50s.

Between 1968 and 1970, three major anthologies of Concrete Poetry appeared, signalling both the high-water mark and beginning of the end of the Concrete Poetry movement. Like the Concrete Art movement, its achievements had by this point been redefined by artists frustrated with the inherent limits of its rationalist programme.

Developments in North America, 1950s-60s

In 1950s America, a number of artists and sculptors turned against the romantic angst and mythologization of the individual that characterized its most successful post-war export, Abstract Expressionism. Many of these artists looked back to the examples of De Stijl and Constructivism for an artistic style based on more rational, impersonal principles. Since the 1930s, the USA had also welcomed a number of émigrés from Europe schooled in the principles of geometrical abstraction, such as Josef Albers, who left Germany following the closure of the Bauhaus under Nazi pressure in 1933.

Though Concrete Art was never as coherent and dynamic a movement in North America as in South America, individual artists such as Charles Biederman made distinctive contributions to the development of geometric abstraction in the 1940s-50s. Josef Albers’s tenure as head of the painting programme at Black Mountain College from 1933 to 1949 also ensured that principles of logical, non-figurative composition influenced the development of North-American painting at mid-century.

Moreover, in a number of native North-American movements, particularly Hard-Edged Painting, we can sense a fascination with the internal dynamics of composition, an emphasis on clarity of form, and a rejection of the artist’s individual emotional imprint, bearing the mark of Concrete Art’s influence. Through this development and many others, including the emergence of North-American Minimalism in the early 1960s, the influence of Concrete Art resonates through the subsequent development of postmodern art.

“Human thinking in general (and mathematical thinking in particular) need, in the face of the unlimited, a visual support. This is where art comes in.” Max Bill

“Concrete art holds an infinite number of possibilities.” Max Bill

“Such constructions are developed only on the basis of their given conditions and without any arbitrary attempt to modify them for reasons of proportion. With this method once the basic theme has been chosen – whether it be simple or complex – an infinite number of very different developments can be evolved according to individual inclination and temperament.” Max Bill

“This method of thus developing and transforming a fundamental idea – a theme – into a variety of expressive forms derived from the theme itself is used by various artists in the realm of concrete art.” Max Bill

Liubov Popova

Liubov Popova
Liubov Popova

Liubov Popova

Rusia, 1889–1924

  • Suprematismo
  • Constructivismo

Liubov Sergueïevna Popova (Любо́вь Серге́евна Попо́ва) fue una de esas artistas rusas asociadas a las vanguardias de la época revolucionaria. Destacó entre sus colegas, situándose en la élite del arte ruso de después de la Revolución de 1917, que ayudó activamente a construir con pintura, escultura, moda y lo que le pusieran por delante.

Popova se distinguió por composiciones muy arquitectónicas y también es característico de ella la búsqueda de la no-objetividad, por lo que ente sus principales influencias estuvo Malevich.

Sus primeras obras fueron pintura de paisaje, retratos y figuras humanas. Pero cuando entra en contacto con las vanguardias Popova se vuelve una «radical». El cubismo o el futurismo se adaptan mejor a lo que ella quiere decir. Se interesa por el collage y uso del relieve, además de adquiri importancia el material usado. Es en 1916 donde empieza su reflexión sobre la presencia o ausencia del objeto, hacia la no-objetividad.

Con el triunfo de la Revolución rusa, Popova se convierte en una de sus artistas más importantes. Compone telas suprematistas, donde mezcla color, volúmenes y líneas, con formas geométricas que se confunden unas en otras y crean una organización de los elementos, no como medio de figuración, sino como construcciones autónomas.

En 1921 abandona la burguesa pintura de caballete. A partir de entonces «la organización de los elementos de la producción artística debe volver a la puesta en forma de los elementos materiales de la vida, es decir, hacia la industria, hacia lo que llamamos la producción».

Y así continuó, produciendo arte hasta que murió de escarlatina a los 35 años.

(CC) Miguel Calvo Santos, 05-11-2017

ARTISTS ART INSTITUTIONS

ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM
ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM

Australia
South Australian School of Design, Adelaide, Australia
National Gallery of Victoria Art School, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Austria
Universität für angewandte Kunst Wien (Kunstgewerbeschule), Vienna, Austria
Akademie der Bildenden Künste Wien, Vienna, Austria
Belarus
Vitebsk Art School, Vitebsk, Belarus
Belgium
Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts (ARBA-ESA), Brussels, Belgium
Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Antwerp, Belgium
Denmark
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen, Denmark
France
Académie des Beaux-Arts, Paris, France
Académie Julian, Paris, France
École des Beaux-Arts, Paris, France
Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, Paris, France
Académie Colarossi, Paris, France
Académie de La Palette, Paris, France
Académie de la Grande Chaumière, Paris, France
Georgia
Tbilisi State Academy of Arts, Tbilisi, Georgia
Germany
Akademie der Künste Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Akademie der Bildenden Künste München (Munich Academy), Munich, Germany
Städelschule (Academy of Fine Art), Frankfurt, Germany
University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
Kunstakademie Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
Dresden Academy of Fine Arts, Dresden, Germany
Academy of Fine Arts, Karlsruhe, Germany
Greece
Athens School of Fine Arts (ASFA), Athens, Greece
Hungary
Hungarian University of Fine Arts, Budapest, Hungary
India
Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
Italy
Accademia delle Arti del Disegno, Florence, Italy
Accademia di Belle Arti di Roma, Rome, Italy
British School at Rome, Rome, Italy
Japan
Rikkyo University, Tokio, Japan
Lithuania
Vilnius Academy of Arts, Vilnius, Lithuania
Mexico
Academia de San Carlos, Mexico City, Mexico
Netherlands
Jan Van Eyck Academie, Maastricht, Netherlands
Rijksakademie van beeldende kunsten, Amsterdam, Netherlands
Gerrit Rietveld Academie, Amsterdam, Netherlands
Norway
Royal School of Art and Design of Christiania, Oslo, Norway
Poland
Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, Krakow, Poland
Russia
Zvantseva School of Drawing and Painting, St. Petersburg, Russia
Imperial Academy of Arts, Saint Petersburg, Russia
Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, Moscow, Russia
Vkhutemas, Moscow, Russia
Surikov Moscow State Academic Art Institute, Moscow, Russia
Spain
Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid, Spain
United Kingdom
Royal Academy of Arts (RA), London, UK
Camberwell College of Arts (School of Arts and Crafts), London, UK
Bath School of Art and Design, Bath, UK
UCL Slade School of Fine Art (University College London), London, UK
Byam Shaw School of Art, London, UK
Central Saint Martins (CSM), London, UK
Chelsea College of Arts (University of the Arts London), London, UK
Norwich University of the Arts (NUA), Norwich, UK
Westminster School of Art, London, UK
Glasgow School of Art (GSA), Glasgow, UK
Hastings College of Arts and Technology (HCAT), East Sussex, UK
Ukraine
Kyiv Art School, Kyiv, Ukraine
National Academy of Visual Arts and Architecture, Kyiv, Ukraine
Transcarpathian Art Institute, Uzhhorod, Ukraine
Grekov Odessa Art School, Odessa, Ukraine
South Ukrainian Ushynsky National Pedagogical University, Odessa, Ukraine
Kharkiv State School of Art, Kharkiv, Ukraine
USA
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Cambridge, MA, US
Carnegie Mellon University (Carnegie Institute of Technology), Pittsburgh, PA, US
Hunter College, City University of New York, New York City, NY, US
Bennington College, Bennington, VT, US
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, PA, US
American Artists School, New York City, NY, US
National Academy Museum and School (National Academy of Design), New York City, NY, US
Tufts School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA, US
Black Mountain College, Black Mountain, NC, US
Art Students League of New York, New York City, NY, US
Washington and Lee University, Lexington, VA, US
School of the Art Institute of Chicago (SAIC), Chicago, IL, US
Maryland Institute College of Art (MICA), Baltimore, MD, US
Art Center College of Design, Pasadena, CA, US
Yale School of Art (Yale University), New Haven, CT, US
University of California (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, US
Otis College of Art and Design, Los Angeles, CA, US
Cleveland Institute of Art, Cleveland, OH, US
Parsons School of Design (Chase School, New York School of Art), New York City, NY, US
San Francisco Art Institute (SFAI), San Francisco, CA, US
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, US
School of Visual Arts (SVA), New York City, NY, US

Guild of Saint Luke
Self-taught
Czech Republic
Academy of Fine Arts (AVU), Prague, Czech Republic
Bulgaria
National Academy of Arts (NAA), Sofia, Bulgaria

Old Masters

Cézanne
Cézanne

Artists Painters

AIVAZOVSKY, IVAN (1817-1900) Russian landscape painter
Ivan Aivazovsky – The Ninth wave

ARCIMBOLDO, GIUSEPPE (1527-1593) Italian Renaissance painter
Giuseppe Arcimboldo – biography

BAROCCI, FEDERICO (1535-1612) Italian Renaissance painter
Federico Barocci at the Saint Louis Art Museum (2012)

BERNINI, GIAN LORENZO (1598-1680) Italian baroque sculptor
Portrait Busts by Bernini at the Getty (2008)
Bernini’s terracotta models at the Metropolitan (2012)

BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827) British artist
The River of Life – William Blake at the Tate Liverpool (2008)
‘A new heaven is begun’ – William Blake at the Morgan Museum (2009)

BOSCH, HYERONIMUS (c.1450-1516) Flemish Renaissance painter
“The garden of delights” – 50 masterworks of painting

BRUEGHEL, PIETER (c.1526/30 – 1569) Flemish Renaissance painter
“The triumph of the death” – 50 masterworks of painting

CHURCH, FREDERIC EDWIN (1826-1900) American romantic painter
Frederic Edwin Church’s Maine landscapes in Portland (2012)
Frederic Church and the Landscape Oil Sketch (2013)

COURBET, GUSTAVE (1819-1877) French realistic painter
Gustave Courbet: from Paris to New York

CRANACH, LUCAS the Elder (1472-1553) German painter
Lucas Cranach the elder at the Royal Academy

DAUMIER, HONORÉ (1808-1879) French realist painter
Honoré Daumier and the Caricature, Cantor Arts Center (2012)

DELACROIX, EUGÈNE (1798-1863) French romantic painter
“Liberty leading the people” – 50 masterworks of painting
Eugène Delacroix at CaixaForum Madrid (2011)

DURER, ALBRECHT (1471-1528) German Renaissance painter
“View of Arco” – 50 masterworks of painting
Albrecht Dürer: self-portrait – 10 great self-portraits

FRANCESCA, PIERO DELLA (c.1415-1492) Italian painter
“The dream of Constantine” – 50 masterworks of painting

FRIEDRICH, CASPAR DAVID (1774-1840) German romantic painter
“Chalk cliffs at Rügen” – 50 masterworks of painting
Friedrich at the Nationalmuseum, Sweden (2009)

GIORGIONE (c.1478-1510) Italian Renaissance painter
“The tempest ” – 50 masterworks of painting

GIOTTO DI BONDONE (1266-1337) Italian Renaissance painter
Giotto di Bondone – biography

GOYA, FRANCISCO DE (1746-1828) Spanish painter and engraver
Dark Goya – a virtual tour on Goya’s Black paintings
Goya – Lights and Shadows, at CaixaForum Barcelona (2012)
Goya’s ‘Disasters of War’ at the Georgia Museum of Art (2012)

GRECO, EL (1541-1614) Greek/Spanish Renaissance painter
El Greco and Modernism – Kunstpalast, Düsseldorf (2012)

HALS, FRANS (c.1582-1666) Dutch Baroque painter
Frans Hals’s brave brushwork at the Metropolitan (2011)

HUI, WANG (1632-1717) Chinese painter
Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui at the Metropolitan (2008)

INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE (1780-1867) French Neoclassical painter
Drawings by Ingres at the Morgan Library and Museum (2011)

KUINDZHI, ARKHIP (1842-1910) Russian landscape painter
Arkhip Kuindzi: “Dnepr in the morning”

LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452-1519) Italian Renaissance painter
Searching the real da Vinci code: a complete analysis
Leonardo da Vinci: self-portrait – 10 great self-portraits
Landmark exhibition of Leonardo opens in London (2011)

LEVITAN, ISAAC (1861-1900) Russian landscape painter
Arkhip Kuindzi: “Lake”

LEYSTER, JUDITH (1609-1660) Dutch Baroque painter
Judith Leyster at the National Gallery of Washington (2009)

LIEVENS, JAN (1607-1674) Dutch baroque painter
Lievens – a Dutch master rediscovered at the NGA (2008)

LOMBARDO, TULLIO (1460-1532) Italian Baroque sculptor
Tulio Lombardo at the National Gallery of Washington (2009)

MELÉNDEZ, LUIS (1715-1780) Spanish Baroque painter
Luis Meléndez at the National Gallery of Washington (2009)

MICHELANGELO (1475-1564) Italian Renaissance artist
“The last judgement” -50 masterworks of painting
Michelangelo’s “The young archer” at the Metropolitan Museum

MURILLO, BARTOLOMÉ ESTEBAN (1617-1682) Spanish baroque painter
Murillo and the Art of Friendship – Prado Museum

POUSSIN, NICOLAS (1594-1665) French baroque painter
Poussin and Nature: Arcadian landscapes – at the Metropolitan

RAPHAEL SANTI (1483-1520) Italian Renaissance painter
“Portrait of a cardinal” – 50 masterworks of painting
Late Raphael at the Prado Museum (2012)

REMBRANDT VAN RIJN (1606-1669) Dutch baroque painter
“The night watch” – 50 masterworks of painting
Rembrandt: self-portrait – 10 great self-portraits
“Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus” in Philadelphia (2012)

SANDBY, PAUL (1731-1809) British landscape painter
‘Picturing Britain’: Paul Sandby at the National Gallery of Scotland

SAVRASOV, ALEXEI (1830-1897) Russian landscape painter
Alexei Savrasow: “The rooks have returned”

SHISHKIN, IVAN (1832-1898) Russian landscape painter
Ivan Shishkin: “Morning in a pine forest”

TITIAN (1485-1576) Italian Renaissance painter
The Triumph of Love: Titian at the National Gallery of London (2009)
Titian’s ‘Diana and Actaeon’ at the National Gallery of London (2009)

TURNER, J.M. WILLIAM (1775-1851) British romantic painter
Joseph Mallord William Turner – master of atmospheres
Turner retrospective at the Metropolitan (2008)
Turner watercolours at the National Galleries of Scotland (2012)
NGA presents ‘Turner Inspired: In the Light of Claude’ (2012)
Turner from the Tate – The Making of a Master (2013)

UCCELLO, PAOLO (1397-1475) Italian Renaissance painter
“The battle of San Romano” – 50 masterworks of painting

VAN DYCK, ANTHONY (1599-1641) Flemish Baroque painter
Museo del Prado presents ‘The Young Van Dyck’ (2012)

VAN EYCK, JAN (c.1390-1441) Dutch Renaissance painter
“The marriage Arnolfini” – 50 masterworks of painting

VASILYEV, FYODOR (1850-1873) Russian landscape painter
Fyodor Vasilyev: “Wet meadow”

VELÁZQUEZ, DIEGO DE (1599-1660) Spanish baroque painter
“Las Meninas” – 50 masterworks of painting

JAN VERMEER (1632-1675) Dutch baroque painter
“View of the Delft” – 50 masterworks of painting

WATTEAU, JEAN ANTOINE (1684-1721) French baroque painter
Watteau: Music and Theater at the Metropolitan Museum (2009)

Suprematism Exhibitions

Black Square by Kazimir_Malevich
Black Square is an iconic painting by Kazimir Malevich.

Suprematism Exhibitions

SUPREMATISM Exhibitions (Russian Cultural Center, Houston, Texas, 2015/Shapiro Center, Columbia University, New York City, 2015)Tom R. Chambers·Monday, April 23, 201815 ReadsBlack Square Interpretations and Other Suprematist Explorations (two-person show with Max Semakov), CaviArt Gallery, Russian Cultural Center, Houston, Texas, March 6 – April 7, 2015.

Suprematism Exhibitions
Suprematism Exhibitions

Tom R. Chambers and Max Semakov/MiMs Art Group come together to pay tribute to Kazimir Malevich through a series of artworks that interpret his “Black Square”, and explore Suprematism. Chambers is based in Houston, Texas, and Semakov is based in Moscow, Russia, which moves this collaboration to a higher plane of exchange between the citizenry of two countries – America and Russia. Chambers and Semakov through their interpretations and explorations move Suprematism in the direction of Neo-Suprematism. Their artworks accentuate and cultivate non-objectivity – the supremacy of pure feeling in creative art.

Suprematism Exhibitions
Suprematism Exhibitions

“Suprematism Infinity: Reflections, Interpretations, Explorations” (December 1, 2015 – January 22, 2016) showcases works by Tom R. Chambers, Mark Khidekel, Irina Nakhova and Max Semakov. It explores works inspired by the legacy of Suprematism through new forms, styles, media, and technology.

Invented by Kazimir Malevich a century ago, Suprematism became one of the most radical and influential art movements of the 20th century. It brought the Russian avant-garde into a state of absolute non-objectivity, based on “pure feeling.” Suprematism created a perception of multiple dimensions without horizons or boundaries and translated these perceptions into energetic relationships between primary geometrical forms. Suprematism also produced a synthesis that merged exploration of the imagination with revolutionary changes in modern science; it allowed development while embracing science and technology as creative tools.

Suprematism Exhibitions
Suprematism Exhibitions

Tom R. Chambers, an artist and educator of digital/new media art, exhibits a transition from realistic photos to pixel abstractions in his series of pixelscapes, “My Dear Malevich” and “Red Sweep Black Square”. They are part of a larger body of works entitled “Black Square Interpretations and Other Suprematist Explorations.” For Chambers, “Pixelscapes is minimal art in keeping with Malevich’s Suprematism – the feeling of non-objectivity – the creation of a sense of bliss and wonder via abstraction.”

Mark Khidekel explores the Suprematist form-creation principles through his career as an architect, designer, and artist. Khidekel has produced many multi-functional projects, including his Post-Suprematist design for the St. Petersburg Russian Museum’s Depository and innovative environmental projects in Russia and the US such as Ostrov (1970s) and Bridge-city (2008-2014). These continue the visionary and environmental legacy of futuristic projects from the 1920s.

Irina Nakhova, the first female artist to represent Russia at the Venice Biennale, will display a digital documentation of part of her Green Pavilion’s “total environments,” which according to The Guardian was one of “the best 5 pavilions” of Venice Biennale 2015. Her discovery of the liberating power of Suprematism in the early 1980s allowed Nakhova to abstract herself from the Soviet reality and create a new artistic environment in her own apartment. It became one of the seminal projects of Moscow conceptualism and Nakhova’s site-specific environmental art. Nakhova’s “Malevich’s Cube,” is the focal point of her “time machine”. Marked by three lightening squares the black room is “the axis of past, present and future.” Space, light, colors, and video imagery create an experience that is both emotionally charged and engaging for the viewer. In Nakhova’s words, the black cube represents a “strange, mysterious, unpredictable Russia.”

Max Semakov, a photographer and artist, exhibits his series “Where is Black?” that injects colored planes into ordinary landscapes in the search for the point of transition to the Suprematist universe. His project “Suprematist Park” is inspired by Suprematist architectons transformed into elements of recreational architecture.

Chambers and Semakov, who share similar aspirations, produce works that have similarities in method or intent to earlier Suprematist pieces, but make use of digital/new media, resulting in the hybridization of the non-objective form.The issues of nature, space and the environment remain cornerstones of contemporary discourse. It is through Suprematism that these issues can be discussed emotionally and creatively. The “blissful sense of liberation” experienced by Malevich can be found in a legacy that continues to encourage the emergence of new ways to create and interpret art.

Curator: Regina Khidekel.Tom R. Chambers donated his works, “My Dear Malevich” and “Red Sweep Black Square” to the Russian American Cultural Center (RACC) Art Collection, New York City.

This exhibition is in conjunction with the “100 Years of Suprematism” conference, Shapiro Center, Columbia University, New York City, December 11 – 12, 2015. It is organized in celebration of the centenary of Kazimir Malevich’s invention of Suprematism and the first public display of his Suprematist paintings in December, 1915. The two-day conference is organized in association with the Harriman Institute, the Lazar Khidekel Society, and SHERA. It features presentations by an international and renowned group of scholars. Among them are leading researchers in the field from the United States, Russia, and the United Kingdom. The event includes a presentation of “Kazimir Malevich: Letters and Documents, Memoirs and Criticism” (London: Tate, 2015)

Red Square by Kazimir Malevich
Painterly Realism of a Peasant Woman in Two Dimensions, more commonly known as Red Square, is a 1915 painting by Kazimir Malevich.
Black Square by Kazimir_Malevich
Black Square is an iconic painting by Kazimir Malevich.

Red Sweep Black Square

This project is a video re: Kazimir Malevich‘s “Black Square” and “Red Square”, both exhibited in 1915. They approximate being one and the same, but Malevich considered his “Black Square” to be the true icon – its zero form – for Suprematism. In Malevich’s system, the movement from black-and-white Suprematism to colored and finally to white Suprematism was indicated by three squares: a black, a red, and a white one. (Vitebsk, Aleksandra Shatskikh, 2007 [1917-1922])

The first time Malevich exhibited his “Red Square”, in 1915, it was subtitled “Pictorial Realism of a Peasant in Two Dimensions”. During the Vitebsk years, the representation of the “Red Square” was politicized. Lazar Lissitzky had a hand in this Bolshevization of the Suprematist figure. He turned the “Red Square” into the Unovis seal. However, Malevich and all the other Suprematist-Unovis members deemed the “Black Square” to be the true symbol of Unovis. (Vitebsk, Aleksandra Shatskikh, 2007 [1917-1922])

In the video below, the sweeping of the color red acknowledges “Red Square” as a Suprematist figure, but there is always a return to the true icon, “Black Square” for Suprematism. Click on player to view.

Basic Color Theory

NFT Art
NFT Art

Basic Color Theory

Color theory encompasses a multitude of definitions, concepts and design applications – enough to fill several encyclopedias. However, there are three basic categories of color theory that are logical and useful : The color wheel, color harmony, and the context of how colors are used.

Color theories create a logical structure for color. For example, if we have an assortment of fruits and vegetables, we can organize them by color and place them on a circle that shows the colors in relation to each other.

fruit organized by color

The Color Wheel

A color circle, based on red, yellow and blue, is traditional in the field of art. Sir Isaac Newton developed the first circular diagram of colors in 1666. Since then, scientists and artists have studied and designed numerous variations of this concept. Differences of opinion about the validity of one format over another continue to provoke debate. In reality, any color circle or color wheel which presents a logically arranged sequence of pure hues has merit.

Three color wheels - Harris, Today, Goethe

There are also definitions (or categories) of colors based on the color wheel. We begin with a 3-part color wheel. 

Primary Secondary Tertiary Colors

Primary Colors: Red, yellow and blue
In traditional color theory (used in paint and pigments), primary colors are the 3 pigment colors that cannot be mixed or formed by any combination of other colors. All other colors are derived from these 3 hues. 

Secondary Colors: Green, orange and purple
These are the colors formed by mixing the primary colors.

Tertiary Colors: Yellow-orange, red-orange, red-purple, blue-purple, blue-green & yellow-green
These are the colors formed by mixing a primary and a secondary color. That’s why the hue is a two word name, such as blue-green, red-violet, and yellow-orange.


 Color Harmony

Harmony can be defined as a pleasing arrangement of parts, whether it be music, poetry, color, or even an ice cream sundae.

In visual experiences, harmony is something that is pleasing to the eye. It engages the viewer and it creates an inner sense of order, a balance in the visual experience. When something is not harmonious, it’s either boring or chaotic. At one extreme is a visual experience that is so bland that the viewer is not engaged. The human brain will reject under-stimulating information. At the other extreme is a visual experience that is so overdone, so chaotic that the viewer can’t stand to look at it. The human brain rejects what it cannot organize, what it cannot understand. The visual task requires that we present a logical structure. Color harmony delivers visual interest and a sense of order.

In summary, extreme unity leads to under-stimulation, extreme complexity leads to over-stimulation. Harmony is a dynamic equilibrium.


Some Formulas for Color Harmony

There are many theories for harmony. The following illustrations and descriptions present some basic formulas.


1. A color scheme based on analogous colors

Example of an anaologous color harmony

Analogous colors are any three colors which are side by side on a 12-part color wheel, such as yellow-green, yellow, and yellow-orange. Usually one of the three colors predominates.
 

2. A color scheme based on complementary colors

Example of a complementary color harmony

Complementary colors are any two colors which are directly opposite each other, such as red and green and red-purple and yellow-green. In the illustration above, there are several variations of yellow-green in the leaves and several variations of red-purple in the orchid. These opposing colors create maximum contrast and maximum stability.
 

3. A color scheme based on nature

color harmony in nature

Nature provides a perfect departure point for color harmony. In the illustration above, red yellow and green create a harmonious design, regardless of whether this combination fits into a technical formula for color harmony.



Dynamic recipes for color harmony
An e-Course from Jill Morton, Color Matters author & consultant.


Color Context

How color behaves in relation to other colors and shapes is a complex area of color theory. Compare the contrast effects of different color backgrounds for the same red square.


©Color Voodoo Publications

Red appears more brilliant against a black background and somewhat duller against the white background. In contrast with orange, the red appears lifeless; in contrast with blue-green, it exhibits brilliance. Notice that the red square appears larger on black than on other background colors.


Different readings of the same color


©Color Voodoo Publications

If your computer has sufficient color stability and gamma correction (link to Is Your Computer Color Blind?) you will see that the small purple rectangle on the left appears to have a red-purple tinge when compared to the small purple rectangle on the right. They are both the same color as seen in the illustration below. This demonstrates how three colors can be perceived as four colors.


Observing the effects colors have on each other is the starting point for understanding the relativity of color. The relationship of values, saturations and the warmth or coolness of respective hues can cause noticeable differences in our perception of color.

Illustrations and text, courtesy of Color Logic and Color Logic for Website Design

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El Suprematismo (Otra forma de abstracción)

Non-Objective Art
Non-Objective Art

El Suprematismo (Otra forma de abstracción)

Alexander Rodchenko (1891-1956)

El Suprematismo -Alexander Rodchenko (1891-1956)
El Suprematismo -Alexander Rodchenko (1891-1956)

Kazimir Malevich (1878-1935)

Con un rechazo total a toda forma imitativa de la naturaleza y libre de ilusionismos pictóricos, hizo su entrada al mundo del arte el suprematismo del pintor ruso Kazimir Malevich (1878-1935).
En el año 1913 Malevich decide abandonar la aventura futurista y se aparta de todo tipo de representación objetual, para pasar a la creación de formas que él llamó “absolutas”. Formas totalmente autónomas, independientes y libres de toda referencia con nuestro entorno “real”.
En 1915 Malevich dio a conocer el “Manifiesto del Suprematismo”. Documento en el que colaboró en su redacción el poeta ruso Vladimir Mayakovsky (1893-1930), en donde se daba a conocer oficialmente el nacimiento de una nueva corriente plástica, adscrita al abstraccionismo, pero con características tan propias que la van a diferenciar de cualquier otra forma de abstracción.

El Suprematismo -Lyubov Popova (1889-1924)
El Suprematismo -Lyubov Popova (1889-1924)

En 1920, cinco año después que se diera a conocer el “Manifiesto del Suprematismo”, se añadió “El Suprematismo como mundo de la no representación”, la más importante obra teórica de Malevich donde hace referencia “de la supremacía de la sensibilidad pura en las artes figurativas”: “Obras alejadas de toda implicación utilitaria; abstracciones de tipo geométrico fundamentadas en el uso de formas simples y elementales: línea recta, cuadrado, cruz, así como colores planos, blanco y negro”.
En cierta ocasión Malevich tratando de dar una explicación racional a esta nueva expresión artística dijo: “Por suprematismo entiendo la supremacía de la sensibilidad pura en las artes figurativas. Para el artista suprematista siempre será válido aquel medio expresivo que permita que la sensibilidad se exprese de modo posiblemente pleno como tal, y que sea extraño a la objetividad habitual”.
El suprematismo ejerció una influencia decisiva en el posterior desarrollo de la abstracción, y algunos de sus postulados son aplicables a otras formas de abstracción como en el caso del arte concreto.

El Suprematismo -Kasimir Malevich (1878-1935)
El Suprematismo -Kasimir Malevich (1878-1935)

5 Questions Your Artist Statement Should Answer

5 Questions Your Artist Statement Should Answer

As nice as it would be to let your art speak for itself, it doesn’t quite work like that.

Sooner or later, people are going to have questions about your work, and they’ll look to your artist statement for answers. Your artist statement will either entice them to dig deeper into your art business or it will scare the sale right out of them.

In order to nail this introduction and make your art business unforgettable, answer these five questions for potential buyers in your artist statement:

1. Why Do You Make This Type of Art?

Why are you drawn to this subject? How do you choose a theme? Giving a behind-the-scenes look into what drives your art is an excellent way to begin building an emotional connection with your audience.

2. What Does Your Artwork Represent?

Does your art represent something about you? Does it represent a message about the world? Does it focus on a piece of history or look to the future?

Our tip: give just enough detail to keep readers interested and grasp your artwork better. Artist statements are intended to be an introduction. Like the old saying goes, always leave them wanting more. Too much detail up front and your readers’ eyes will start to wander.

3. What Inspires You?

What connection do you have to your art? What motivates you? Enthusiastically express why you create what you do and your audience will feel more enthusiastic about it, too.

4. How Do You Make It?

Why do you use certain materials? What techniques do you use? Is there a connection between your process and your artwork’s message? Explaining what goes into a piece can help buyers grasp the significance and scope of your work.

5. What Does Your Art Mean to You?

How do you interpret the meaning of your work? Now, this question should be handled carefully. Notice that this question has no intention of directing your viewers on how to feel or think. It’s crucial to focus solely on your own understanding here because everyone views art differently.

The goal of your artist statement should be to widen the reach of your audience. And, laying down the law on exactly how to process your artwork simply defeats the point and might turn away buyers.

Now that you know what to write about …

Follow these five writing tips for a memorable artist statement. Your writing can either win or lose you some great opportunities for your art business. And, while you might think your art speaks for itself, many look to this statement as the first introduction to your brand. So take the time to answer these important questions and thrill your potential buyers.

https://www.artworkarchive.com/blog/5-questions-your-artist-statement-should-answer

Artist Statement Guidelines

ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM
ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM

Artist Statement Guidelines

Artists can send their artist statement for professional review. GYST submission policies, examples of artist statements, and writing tips are found below:

What Is an Artist’s Statement?

  1. A general introduction to your work, a body of work, or a specific project.
  2. It should open with the work’s basic ideas in an overview of two or three sentences or a short paragraph.
  3. The second paragraph should go into detail about how these issues or ideas are presented in the work.
  4. If writing a full-page statement, you can include some of the following points:
    • Why you have created the work and its history.
    • Your overall vision.
    • What you expect from your audience and how they will react.
    • How your current work relates to your previous work.
    • Where your work fits in with current contemporary art.
    • How your work fits in with the history of art practice.
    • How your work fits into a group exhibition, or a series of projects you have done.
    • Sources and inspiration for your images.
    • Artists you have been influenced by or how your work relates to other artists’ work. Other influences.
    • How this work fits into a series or longer body of work.
    • How a certain technique is important to the work.
    • Your philosophy of art making or of the work’s origin.
  5. The final paragraph should recapitulate the most important points in the statement.

What an Artist’s Statement is NOT:

  1. Pomposity, writing a statement about your role in the world.
  2. Grandiose and empty expressions and clichés about your work and views.
  3. Technical and full of jargon.
  4. Long dissertations or explanations.
  5. Discourses on the materials and techniques you have employed.
  6. Poems or prosy writing.
  7. Folksy anecdotes about some important event in your life.
  8. Nothing about your childhood or family unless it is very relevant to your work.
  9. Not a brag fest or a press release.

Why Write an Artist’s Statement?

  1. Writing an artist’s statement can be a good way to clarify your own ideas about your work.
  2. A gallery dealer, curator, docent, or the public can have access to your description of your work, in your own words. This can be good for a reviewer as well.
  3. Useful in writing a proposal for an exhibition or project.
  4. It is often required when applying for funding.
  5. It is often required when applying to graduate school.
  6. It can be a good idea to include an artist’s statement when your slides are requested for review or your work is included in the slide library of a college or university.
  7. Good to refer to when you are preparing a visiting artist lecture, or someone else is lecturing or writing about your work.
  8. Useful when you are applying for a teaching position.
  9. Good idea when a press release is being written.
  10. Useful when someone is writing about your work in a catalog or magazine.
  11. Useful when someone else is writing a bio for a program brochure.
  12. It is a good way to introduce your work to a buying public. Often the more a buyer knows about your work the more they become interested in what you do, and in purchasing a work.

Types of Artist’s Statements You Might Need.

  1. Full-Page Statement: This statement you will use most often; it speaks generally about your work, the methods you may have used, the history of your work, etc. It may also include specific examples of your current work or project.
  2. Short Statement: A shorter statement that includes the above in an abbreviated way, or is specific to the project at hand.
  3. Short Project Statement: A very short statement about the specific project you are presenting.
  4. Bio: Often a short description of your career as an artist and your major accomplishments.

How Should I Write It?

  1. This most often depends on the context where it will appear. Who is your reader? What assumptions can you make about their knowledge?
    • Emotional tone
    • Theoretical (but not over-the-top)
    • Academic (but not dry)
    • Analytic
    • Humorous
    • Antagonistic
    • Political
    • Professional
  2. Ask yourself “What are you trying to say in the work?” “What influences my work?” “How do my methods of working (techniques, style, formal decisions) support the content of my work?” “What are specific examples of this in my work” “Does this statement conjure up any images?”
  3. Use a word processor so that you can make changes and update it often. You should keep older copies so that you can refer to them if you should need to write or talk about your older work or if you have a retrospective.
  4. Refer to yourself in the first person, not as “the artist”.  Make it come from you. Make it singular, not general, and reflective of yourself and your work.
  5. Make it clear and direct, concise and to the point.
  6. It should not be longer than one page.
  7. Use no smaller than 10 – 12 point type. Some people have trouble reading very small type.
  8. Artist’s statements are usually single-spaced.
  9. Do not use fancy fonts or tricky formatting. The information should wow them, not the graphic design.

Considerations:

  1. Who is your audience? What level are you writing for?
  2. What will your statement be used for?
  3. What does your statement say about you as an artist and a professional?

Style:

  1. Be honest.
  2. Try to capture your own speaking voice.
  3. Avoid repetition of phrases and words. Look for sentences that say the same thing you said before, but in a different way. Choose the better of the two.
  4. Vary sentence structure and length. The length of a sentence should relate to the complexity of the idea.
  5. Organization of detail is important. Significant ideas should be at the end of each sentence for emphasis.

Where Should It Go?

  1. In a binder at the front of the gallery with your résumé, list of artworks, and past reviews or articles about your work.
  2. You may want to hang it on the wall, regular size, or enlarged as a didactic statement.
  3. Include it in a program for performance, screening, or panel.
  4. In the application package of the grant you are applying for.
  5. Give to anyone who you feel would benefit from the information.

https://www.gyst-ink.com/artist-statement-guidelines

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